Hotel & lodging management current event Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Hotel & lodging management current event - Essay Example The balance between technologies, communication, and human touch helps hotels and lodgings to be more competitive. Technology is also used to convert natural resources into simple tools. It has an influence on the use of leisure facility like the class, impurities in the environment and natural resource depletion. The hotel industry and leisure providers are expected to keep up the pace in technology in order for them to make profits and improve customer services. There are many technologies that the hotel industry should keep up with in order to improve service delivery. Technology can also be used in support for guests with disabilities. Regulations are being released and revised to provide support to guests with disabilities. These regulations require hotels and companies to review most aspects of their operations, from distribution to construction to ensure compliance. Hotel management works their best strategies in the quest to provide related and better sources of information and service to guests with disabilities due to increase that is felt as it goes to the distribution which affects the hotel information and transactions. Cloud computing is another system that can be employed by the hotel management to ensure appropriate and efficient data storage, and it is also very secure as compared to other storage methods. It involves the use of online storage systems whereby the hotel management and storage information on a reserved space online using the computer. It is considered as one of the reliable ways to storing records. Mobility is the new face of computing as devices such as tablets and smartphones revolutionize the way we interact with technology. In hotels, tables, mobile phones, smartphones, and laptops have become critical tools on both sides of the check in desk. Therefore, some hotels access its management system on Apple iPad to eliminate manual registration desk

Auditing Risk and Liabilities

Auditing Risk and Liabilities Auditors are naturally nervous of the potential liability that they face when undertaking their role. This is particularly the case when it comes to the high risk audit client, where there is a much greater chance of inherent problems either within the business itself or with the way that it reports its position. This difficulty is recognised by the Accounting Standards Board to the extent that it has brought out guidance requiring auditors to undertake risk assessments in relation to the potential client, before it undertakes any auditing engagement (AICPA, 2006)[1]. The role of the auditor is quite simply to report (predominantly to the members of the company) as to whether the accounts have been prepared to give a true and fair view of the company’s financial position. Typically, factors such as complying with the Companies Act 2006 and preparing accounts in accordance with recognised accounting standards are all matters that the auditors will draw on to decide whether or n ot the accounts have been prepared in a way that gives a true and fair view of the financial position of the company. The problem occurs when something goes wrong with the company that is being audited. Risks are incurred by auditors when some sort of defect appears in the accounts of the company that has been audited as being true and fair. Naturally, the burden does not rest entirely with the auditor and there may well be other parties who are drawn in as jointly responsible, such as those who prepare the accounts, the directors of the company, the staff members within the company and, in the case of fraud, the person responsible for the fraud. However, for the purposes of this examination, only auditor risk will be considered (Cunningham, 2007)[2]. Auditors are often the main target when there is a problem, particularly in the case of a corporate collapse, due to the perception that they have deep pockets, largely provided by the indemnity insurance that auditors hold. Liquidators are particularly keen to access these funds as those involved in the business will rarely have access to any funds, at this point. Auditor risk (i.e. the risk of the auditor giving an incorrect opinion on the accounts) can be broken down into three areas: inherent, control and detection. The risk that a set of company accounts is inaccurate is inherently higher in certain sectors. When setting the level of audit risk, in this respect, the auditor will not take into account the level of internal control and will only consider the risk inherent with the business. For high risk audit clients, this inherent risk will be considerably higher than in other sectors, e.g. banking and financial institutions. Control risk is different from inherent risk in that it measures how likely it is that the company will pick up any accounting misstatements, if they occur. This is vital as a company may be inherently very risky; however, if it has exceptionally good internal controls, the inherent risks will be substantially limited. Finally, there are detection risks which reflect the risk that auditors do not pick up any misstatements that remain in the accounts (Worthington, 2007)[3]. Therefore, where there is an inherently high risk client, this will not necessarily result in an increased audit risk, if the controls are sufficient. Similarly, there may be an inherently un-risky company that has few or no controls, yet may become considerably more risky than it would immediately appear. Because of the potentially high risks involved and the chances of auditors being targeted in order to assist recovery of funds, in cases of corporate collapse, it is not surprising that auditors are keen to establish a cap on their liability. The Office of Fair Trading was asked by the government to consider whether imposing a cap on liability would result in a negative impact on competition between auditing firms. This is particularly concerning given the dominance of the top four accountancy firms in this area (KPMG, Pricewaterhouse Coopers, Ernst Young and Deloittes). There were mixed views from the auditing profession, with some believing that a liability on the cap would result in an increase in competition, whereas others believed that the cap would increase the dominance of the big four firms. The OFT noted, in the report, that there were no available mechanisms for auditors to limit their liability in relation to faults due to negligence or incompetence. It also noted that it saw no history of courts awarding excessive amounts in cases relating to auditor liability. It also referred to the fact that most auditing companies are set up in an LLP structure so that the partners’ personal assets are protected and the existence of professional insurance was noted. The report concluded that the position should not alter in relation to auditors’ liability and no cap should be introduced. However, it did recognise that there was at least an argument in favour of introducing a cap. In particular, the report recognised the key differences that exist between the UK and US. It should also be noted that the recommendations deviated from the findings of the report and this shift will be discussed later in the examination. In the OFT report, it was recognised that one of the leading cases for dealing with the scope of liability for auditors remains that of Caparo v Dickman[4] where a duty of care was established between the auditor and a minor shareholder. Although the decision itself was not surprising, the obiter in the case maintained that only the company could bring an action against the auditors. This position is not the same in the US where other third parties can bring actions aside from the company (although the changes in the Companies Act 2006 should be noted) (Smith Keenan, 2004)[5]. The case of Royal Bank of Scotland v Bannerman Johnstone Maclay[6] served as a timely manner of the extent of this potential duty of care. In this case, liability was allowed to be extended to third parties that have been adversely affected by a corporate failure. In this case, the issue of whether auditors could possibly have a duty of care to the company bankers was considered. The bankers continued to make investments into the company, having relied on the financial accounts that were incorrectly prepared and audited. The auditors naturally relied on the Caparo case and attempted to argue that they had no liability to third parties. Conversely, the bank argued that the auditors knew the bankers would be relying on the accounts and felt that this meant that a duty would be owed (Vinten, 1999)[7]. By considering all of the facts such as the degree of attention that was placed on the loan facilities being provided by the bank, it was felt by the court that the auditors did, in fact, assume a duty of care towards the bankers. The auditors were completely aware of the banks’ role in assessing working capital. It was noted by the court that if the auditors had issued a suitable disclaimer then the decision would have been different. As a result of this case, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales has issued advice that auditors should include a disclaimer, advice which all four of the big four auditors have chosen to accept. Conversely, the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants felt that a disclaimer should not be routinely used, as it may undermine the value of audit reports. Regardless of this, the potential of liability to third parties has undoubtedly caused some nerves for the auditing firms (Pacini, Hilison Sinason, 2000)[8]. Despite the ability of audit firms to establish themselves as limited liability partnerships, audit firms have pressed for a change in the regime from a joint and several liability process to a proportionate liability regime as seen in the US. As previously indicated, the joint and several liability process often results in the auditors being much greater targets where a claim is thought to exist. In the US, there is the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 which specifically replaced the joint and several liability approaches with that of proportionate liability. Under the US regime, liability is allocated based on the degree of wrong doing for which each party is potentially responsible, rather than based on who has the deeper pockets, which seems to be more the case in the UK. This has the effect that where there is no wrongdoing, companies are not inclined to sue the auditors simply because they have the resources to pay any damages (van Boom, Koziol, Witting Bloch, 2004)[9]. As well as limiting the way that wrongdoing is allocated, the PSLRA 1995 has the impact of limiting the cap on liability to reflect the difference between the sale or purchase price and the mean trading price that the company displayed in the ninety day period immediately after the market became aware of the misstatement. This is clearly completely opposite to the structure in the UK whereby liability is joint and several and limitation is based on the loss levels that the claimant can prove in court that they have lost. This critical difference between the UK and US also raises issues when there are international companies involved that can legitimately bring an action in either jurisdiction. In these cases, it is likely that the company would choose to bring an action in the UK against the UK branch of the audit company in order to avoid the limitation on liability that exists in the US (Hood, Rothstein Baldwin, 2004)[10]. Whilst this dichotomy between the US and UK has not entirely been closed, the issue has certainly been considered by policy setters, in the UK. There was some speculation that provisions to provide a cap on limitation would be introduced in the Companies Act 2006. This has not happened, but some concessions have occurred that will potentially be of assistance to auditors in attempting to limit their liability. Under part 16 of the 2006 Act, a company cannot indemnify its auditor. Where previously a company could purchase insurance for their auditor, this is no longer the case; however, the company can agree to indemnify the auditors for any costs incurred in successfully defending a claim. The big amendment under the 2006 Act is that it is now possible for the company to agree a liability limit in the form of a liability limitation agreement (LLA) with the auditors. This agreement can cover breach of duty, negligence and breach of trust, thus making it potentially exceptionally useful for auditors. There are some restrictions as to when an LLA can be entered into. These include approval by the company’s members; it must be limited to the financial year of the audit and it must not be limited at a level that is below that which is seen as fair and reasonable. When considering what a fair and reasonable amount of limitation would be, the court will take into account various factors including other sources of recourse that the company may have against other parties, thus retaining the essence of joint and several liability (Markesinis Deakin, 1999)[11]. Auditors in the UK are rightly concerned about the level of risk that they are potentially exposed to when undertaking their role as auditor. The position is distinct from that in the US and has resulted in UK auditors facing an increasing burden in international transactions. The failure to impose a liability cap naturally means that those attempting to reclaim losses will target the deep pockets of the auditor. The argument against having a proportional liability approach is that in doing so the valuable auditor’s reputation would be jeopardised (Law, 2008)[12]. There have been slight moves towards capping liability in the 2006 Act, but this has not gone nearly as far as the auditing profession would have liked and is still not in line with the position in the US. Despite multiple efforts, it would seem that a statutory limitation of liability is not going to be forthcoming and auditors will have to rely on entering into their own arrangements with individual companies, although the fair and reasonable requirement may result in the effectiveness of this provision being, at best, piecemeal. It seems that for now, at least, auditors’ deep pockets will remain under fire. Bibliography Cunningham, L.A., 2007. Securitizing Audit Failure Risk: An Alternative to Caps on Damages. William and Mary Law Review, 49. Hood, C., Rothstein, H. Baldwin, R., 2004. The Government of Risk: Understanding Risk Regulation Regimes. Oxford University Press. Law, P., 2008. Auditors perceptions of reasonable assurance in audit work and the effectiveness of the audit risk model. Asian Review of Accounting, 16 (2). Markesinis, B.S. Deakin S.F., 1999. Tort Law. Clarendon Press. Pacini, C., Hillison, W. Sinason, D., 2000. Auditor liability to third parties: an international focus. Managerial Auditing Journal, 15 (8). Sealy, L. Worthington, S., 2007. Cases and Materials in Company Law. Oxford University Press. Smith, K. Keenan, D.J., 2004. Smith Keenans English Law. Pearson Education. van Boom, W.H., Koziol, H., Witting, C.A. Bloch, L., 2004. Pure Economic Loss. Springer. Vinten, G., 1999. Audit independence in the UK – the state of the art. Managerial Auditing Journal, 14 (8). Footnotes [1] AICPA Statement on Auditing Standards No. 109, 2006. [2] Cunningham, L.A., 2007. Securitizing Audit Failure Risk: An Alternative to Caps on Damages. William and Mary Law Review, 49. [3] Sealy, L. Worthington, S., 2007. Cases and Materials in Company Law. Oxford University Press. [4] [1990] 1 All ER 568 [5] Smith, K. Keenan, D.J. 2004. Smith Keenans English Law. Pearson Education. [6] unreported, 23 July 2002 [7] Vinten, G., 1999. Audit independence in the UK – the state of the art. Managerial Auditing Journal, 14 (8). [8] Pacini, C., Hillison, W. Sinason, D., 2000. Auditor liability to third parties: an international focus. Managerial Auditing Journal, 15 (8). [9] van Boom, W.H., Koziol, H., Witting, C.A. Bloch, L., 2004. Pure Economic Loss. Springer. [10] Hood, C., Rothstein, H. Baldwin, R., 2004.The Government of Risk: Understanding Risk Regulation Regimes. Oxford University Press. [11] Markesinis, B.S. Deakin, S.F., 1999. Tort Law. Clarendon Press. [12] Law, P., 2008. Auditors perceptions of reasonable assurance in audit work and the effectiveness of the audit risk model. Asian Review of Accounting, 16 (2).

We Must Put an End to Corporal Punishment Essay -- Corporal Punishment

There was an old woman who lived in a shoe She had so many children she didn't know what to do She gave them some broth, Without any bread Whipped them all soundly, and sent them to bed (Mother Goose). Â   All across American households, adults whip, spank, paddle, and swat children as a form of acceptable punishment and as deterrent to unwanted behaviors. These actions are considered corporal punishment, and can be defined numerous ways. The American Public Health Association defines corporal punishment as "the infliction of bodily pain as a penalty for behavior disapproved by the punisher"(American Public Health Association). Similarly, the American Medical Association describes it as "the use of force with the intention of causing a child to experience pain, but not injury, for the purpose of correction or control of the child's behavior"(American Medical Association). No matter how it is defined, spanking is a practice that is so widely accepted in American culture that it is even celebrated in this popular Mother Goose children's rhyme. Although many argue that this type of punishment has been effective ever since the "good old days" where kids learned forcefully how to behave, th ere is a plethora of evidence that shows emphatically that corporal punishment never was, is, or will be an effective means of discipline. In fact, various credible studies and researchers have concluded that corporal punishment causes many undesirable and negative effects on children. Consequently, numerous cases prove that reducing this type of punishment has measurable benefits. Â   Â   Most research concludes that spanking does result in immediate compliance, but according to Jordan Riak, author and founder of the... ...ainst Children: A Challenge for Society. New York: Walter de Gruyter & CO., 1996. Muller, Judy. "No Spanking Zone Proposed." ABCNEWS.com Plutarch. The Education of Children. Vol. 2. Moralia, Ancient Greece. "Policy Resolution on Corporal Punishment." American Public Health Association. November 7, 1979. Riak, Jordan. Plain Talk About Spanking: Parents and Teachers Against Violence in Education. Alamo, CA, 1992. Revised in 1999. "Spanking Makes Children Violent, Antisocial." American Medical Association News Update. August 13, 1997. Straus, Murray A. and Paschall, Mallie J. Corporal Punishment by Mothers and Cognitive Development of Children: A Longitudinal Study. http://www.ung.edu?frl?cp51japa.htm UN: Committee on Rights of Child Concludes Eighteenth Session. Geneva, 18 May to 5 June., M2 Press WIRE, 06-09-1998.

Love at First Sight Essay

Love at first sight is a common trope in Western literature, in which a person, character, or speaker feels romantic attraction for a stranger on the first sight of them. Described by poets and critics from the Greek world on, it has become one of the most powerful tropes in Western fiction. In the classical world, the phenomenon of â€Å"love at first sight† was understood within the context of a more general conception of passionate love, a kind of madness or, as the Greeks put it, theia mania (â€Å"madness from the gods†).[1] This love passion was described through an elaborate metaphoric and mythological psychological schema involving â€Å"love’s arrows† or â€Å"love darts,† the source of which was often given as the mythological Eros or Cupid,[2] sometimes by other mythological deities (such as Rumor[3]). At times, the source of the arrows was said to be the image of the beautiful love object itself. If these arrows arrived at the lover’s eyes, they would then travel to and ‘pierce’ his or her heart, overwhelming them with desire and longing (love sickness). The image of the â€Å"arrow’s wound† was sometimes used to create oxymorons and rhetorical antithesis. â€Å"Love at first sight† was explained as a sudden and immediate beguiling of the lover through the action of these processes, and is illustrated in numerous Greek and Roman works. In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Narcissus becomes immediately spellbound and charmed by his own (unbeknownst to him) image. In Achilles Tatius’s Leucippe and Clitophon, the lover Clitophon thus describes his own experience of the phenomenon: â€Å"As soon as I had seen her, I was lost. For Beauty’s wound is sharper than any weapon’s, and it runs through the eyes down to the soul. It is through the eye that love’s wound passes, and I now became a prey to a host of emotions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [4]†Love at first sight† was not, however, the only mode of entering into passionate love in classical texts; at times the passion could occur after the initial meeting or could precede the first glimpse. Another classical interpretation of the phenomenon of â€Å"love at first sight† is found in Plato’s Symposium in Aristophanes’ description of the separation of primitive double-creatures into modern men and women and their subsequent search for their missing half: â€Å"†¦ when [a lover] †¦ is fortunate enough to meet his other half, they are both so intoxicated with affection, with friendship, and with love, that they cannot bear to let each other out of sight for a single instant.†[5]

Lady Macbeth Coursework Essay

When Shakespeare was writing ‘Macbeth’, most people believed that the Sun went around the Earth and that magic and witchcraft existed. This made them very superstitious indeed. Religion was also a dominant factor at the time. All children were baptized, soon after they were born. This then enabled them to be taught the essentials of the Christian religion. Education at the time was only best for the rich. Shakespeare was one of the lucky ones; because of him being brought up in a very wealthy society he got the chance to be well educated. This then got him writing plays such as Twelfth Night, Hamlet and including Macbeth. He is now widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in English literature. In ‘Macbeth’, Lady Macbeth can be seen in many ways which can be related to Macbeth’s villainy. She can be seen as the protector/protected, manipulator, victim, Jacobean wife and also how she is in charge of the relationship with Macbeth. Manipulation is the process of bending another to your will and making them believe or do something that they normally wouldn’t do. Manipulation can be seen when both Lady Macbeth and Macbeth plot to kill their own King (King Duncan). â€Å"And live a coward in thine own esteem†, in this quotation we can see that Lady Macbeth is literally saying to Macbeth that he is only being a coward to himself if he was going to back away from the deed. Lady Macbeth uses such strong words so that Macbeth has a greater chance of not backing down to the regicide. From analysing the quote ‘live a coward in thine’ we can clearly see that the word ‘coward’ is emphasised with the word ‘thine’. The word ‘coward’ means someone who is afraid and someone with no bravery at all. This is important to me because it gives a great impact to the reader that Macbeth is being called a ‘coward’ by his own wife. This to me sounds like Lady Macbeth is acting in a very sly way to get her husband to do what she wants him to do. Another example of manipulation can be seen when Lady Macbeth is talking about the plot to kill the King with Macbeth. â€Å"These deeds must not be thought after these ways†¦so, it will make us mad†. Here we can see that Lady Macbeth is trying to bend the situation a bit so that it goes to her favour. In other words, telling Macbeth to not worry about what has happened. ‘It will make us mad’. In this quote the word ‘mad’ is important because it is being emphasised so that Macbeth is more alert about the murder. Mad is an adjective which is usually associated with people that are not acting in a normal way. To me this suggests that Lady Macbeth is saying that if you don’t forget about the deed, we are going to be in a normal state. We can also see Lady Macbeth in control of the relationship with Macbeth when she helps Macbeth with the murder of King Duncan, making the guards drunk, assuring that Macbeth doesn’t get caught in the process. â€Å"Only look up clear; to alter favour ever is to fear. Leave all the rest to me†. In this text we can literally see that Lady Macbeth is giving Macbeth the opportunity for her to do most of the covering up, this clearly indicates Lady Macbeth taking the role of being the ‘protector’ towards her husband. By the use of the command ‘Leave all the rest to me’ this to me emphasises that she is the dominant character at this specific part of the scene. The word ‘leave’ is a command that you would usually use after a word, in this occasion Lady Macbeth has used this at the start of the sentence which to me sounds more appealing for the reader too. Furthermore, she implicates to ‘the rest’ as referring to the King, the daggers and the stewards. This to me shows that she is telling Macbeth that she can take control of situations like these. The relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth does not always go in Lady Macbeth’s favour. In this case she is more of a ‘victim’. This can be seen at the end of the story when she is guilty of all the murders which that she has contributed to, this then leads her going ‘mad’. â€Å"The thane of Fife he had a wife, where is she now?† by examining this text, we can see that now Lady Macbeth is in a ‘half away/half dreaming’ state to hold herself for all the deeds that Macbeth has committed, this to me explains why she is asking such questions. ‘The thane of Fife he had a wife’, here by Lady Macbeth using the past tense ‘had’ it shows to me that a level of confusion has taken place. This is then emphasised when she adds on the question at the end of the sentence. Therefore, in the reader’s point of view, it shows us that she is behaving in a ‘mad’ sort of manor, which isn’t rea lly seen before. We can say that Lady Macbeth is the catalyst of the murder. Furthermore, she can be known as the protector and the protected. Macbeth is one character who tries best to protect Lady Macbeth. When Banquo was murdered, Macbeth kept Lady Macbeth in complete darkness. â€Å"Be innocent of the deed, dear chuck†, this quote suggests that Macbeth is trying to protect her and is shown as the ‘protected’. By the use of the words ‘be innocent’ it suggests to me that Lady Macbeth is forcing Macbeth to ‘be innocent’, this is because the command is used at the start of the sentence which usually indicates that the person is in control. The whole quote â€Å"Be innocent of the deed, dear chuck† infers that she wants him to forget about the murder, showing that she’s a protector. Lady Macbeth can also be seen as a protector when she responds to Macbeth’s actions. â€Å"Leave all the rest to me†. In this quote we can clearly see Lady Macbeth as the dominant character in their relationship and also as the protector towards her own husband. By looking at the text used and concentrating on the word â€Å"me†, we can see that Lady Macbeth could be using the word as in referring herself to the ‘manipulator’,’ protector’ or even the victim. Also by use of the words â€Å"the rest†, this could give the reader a thought that it can be referred to or mean the king, or his guards, the daggers or can simply mean different abstracts such as shame, guilt, and consequence. This to me shows a perfect demonstration on how Lady Macbeth is being a protector and manipulator towards Macbeth to get her own way. Lady Macbeth is not always seen as the catalyst. In this case it is shown when she takes the role of being a ‘victim’. â€Å"Unsex me here†. In this quote it shows that Lady Macbeth is asking for her feminine side to be taken away. This to me shows that she is making a change from the typical female stereo type (e.g. kind, vulnerable) to a more masculine character (e.g. leader, ‘macho man’). This change could have made her more manipulative towards Macbeth and in a leading role, but in the state she is in now she is seen more as the victim. Lady Macbeth can also be seen as ‘victim’ in the quote â€Å"sweeten this little hand†. Here we can see that what Shakespeare is trying to say that, because of how Lady Macbeth’s contribution to the regicide, she is trying to forgive herself for what she has done wrong. By the use of the words ‘sweeten’ and ‘little’, it clearly shows that she’s vulnerable and delicate. By the use of words like these it also infers Lady Macbeth’s sorrow and the role of her being a victim. Overall we can see that Lady Macbeth is the dominant character that contributes to Macbeth’s villainy in many ways. Killing a king in the was the worst crime you could possibly do in Shakespeare’s time.

Influence of Media on political advertising

Influence of Media on political advertising Introduction Present American campaigns and elections depend highly on political advertising through the media. In the recent past, there have not been campaigns and elections without political ads on television. Political ads are now a main tool and vehicle in elections.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Influence of Media on political advertising specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This does not however mean that all political campaigns have to use media. This means that media is a tool with which political advertising is very effective and reaches many people (Schultz, 2004). The main role of media is to give information and entertainment. However, media has an effect on different institutions including cultural, political, and even social institutions. Moreover, the media companies receive a big percent of their income from advertising (Biagi, 2011). Riaz, 2010 adds that one of the significant branches of Journalism a nd Mass Communication is political communication. Political communication entails the use of media by political parties and even governments to get support from the public especially during election times or any time they require public support. It is easy for government to provide the required information to the public using the internet and new media. Citizens receive the information the government want to convey while they also air their grievances and concerns to the government. Consequently, the media will always be part of any society since it will challenge and even aggravate. Although media can invite, manipulate, and irritate, it cannot work dependently. Media is sparklingly attractive; its style is captivating and its power frightening. Therefore, only a few people can pride of being able to resist its distractions and charm (Behnke, 2010). In the modern world, the society is moving on the tips of the fingers since it is the era of web. There has been a drastic change in t he society today since introduction of the new media technologies. Moreover, the new technologies have not spared the old print and electronic media. The development of new technologies is present in both developed and developing countries.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In addition, the evolution of technology has effects on the political communication. There is a rampant use of internet and mobile phones in the election campaigns. This means that media effects political behavior both in developing and developed countries (Riaz, 2010). Media and political communication Politics main purpose is to change people’s minds and change it completely. In the political system, the only channel to reaching citizens is through the media especially internet and television. Media is an articulated system, which, the original information comes from print media before television circulates to the majority of the audience and the radio modifies the communication. Therefore, without media there is no politics. The political systems mainly use the media to popularize themselves and get support from the citizens (Castells, 2007). Political communication ensures that the media those covers easily those in power and put their messages across. On the other hand, the media is more interested in the elites. Presently, if a candidate does not receive coverage by most media houses then his political policies will be less popular. This means that the candidates featured easily in the media remain the most popular politicians (Wolfsfeld, 2011). According to Hermanns 2008, the use of mobile phones is slowly gaining popularity since it occurs as a wider context of democracy by building of networks. Media and democracy Democracy is a common phrase in the modern world. However, democracy is only possible in a society that has freedom of discussion and information . Therefore, free media is a crucial part of the democratic society. In this context, media provides a platform for open discussions while organizing political debates. New media technologies thrive in such atmosphere where there is democracy and participation (Riaz, 2010). However, new does not have a major impact on the national politics compared with traditional media. The use of internet as a form of democracy is contradictory in many nations. The first way to feel the effect of media is through cultural diversity before coming to election. In this case, democracy in most societies refers to a culture of citizenship or specific structure of governance (Thorburn, 2004).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Influence of Media on political advertising specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Influence of media on campaigns and elections Politicians and their political campaigners have extensively used media to campaign for elec tions. In addition to this, they have used media to sell their agenda to the wider public. In some instances, politicians use the media platform to measure up with each other during campaigns. In this case, the politicians engage in fierce debates especially in national televisions. Here, they get a chance of selling their ideas and convincing the voters that they are the preferred candidates as opposed to their rivals. In addition, the interviewers put them to task in explaining their positions and opinions in certain critical issues affecting the wider public. In essence, such questions help the voters to gauge the candidates and make wise decisions (Schultz, 2004). Swanson Mancini, 1996 adds that politicians consider the periods of election campaigns as the most important periods of their career. In addition, the voters value this period because it helps in selection of good leaders and gauge the politicians against important national issues. The media, especially social media a nd televisions provide a good platform where the public and politicians realize these issues. It is only through the media that politicians can engage in healthy national debates and give the voters a chance to ask them questions. The media is also a very powerful tool in shaping and determining the progress of political contest. Each politician wants to reach as many voters as he can for assurance of winning. Since such politicians may not have the resources and time to tour all the parts of his country or region, they use media to reach many people. Most politicians make every effort to ensure that their campaign messages pass through most of the media houses. This is because not all people watch particular media house, but each has a preference. As a result, a single politician may reach thousands or millions of voters through advertising on media. In some instances, most of the politicians vying for various posts are not popular among the voters. However, when such politicians a dvertise through media, it may be surprising how they may get an overwhelming support from the public (Wolfsfeld, 2011).Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Use of social media for political advertising completely changes political cultures of some regions and countries. Various researches indicate that over fifty percent of voters in many countries use the internet to gauge political candidates. It is also in the social media where many voters influence each other on the direction to vote. In this sense, voters may mobilize other voters to vote for a certain candidate. Other researches indicate that the media, especially social media influence the voting decisions of about forty percent of voters in developed countries. Some politicians also create pages in social media where they post their agendas and political policies. Politicians use the social media because they know that the biggest percentage of voters is between twenty years and forty-five years (Thorburn, 2004). Behnke, 2010 indicates that social media is a very powerful tool for political advertising. He adds that social media is emerging and developing at a very faster rate and that many people has easy access to it. This is because with current technologies of smart phones, tabs and pads, most people can access social media whenever they are and in whatever they are doing. There are very many social media sites today, and they have a great influence since they reach a great number of people. Many people use social media sites for socializing, posting advertisements, posting news, and making new friends. New Media and political advertising New media is very beneficial to the citizens. They help the citizens to choose the information they want and communicate with each other or their representatives directly without any influence of the editors. In addition, the new media provides fast access to information compared to the traditional media. The citizens also enjoy improved means of searching and storing information. Moreover, the new media helps the citizens enjoy the right of privacy because they can now access information directly without any influe nce of third party. New media is more democratic in that they allow citizen’s direct participation hence reducing the cost of money and time (Tambini, 1999). Schultz, 2004 asserts that political campaigns through the media can promote or break a political candidate. In some instances, there are some advertisements that portray negative qualities of a candidate. Other advertisements seek to attack certain politicians directly. The media is a platform where candidates sell their agenda as well as attack their opponents to taint them among the voters. On the other hand, political advertising through media can make a candidate popular even if he may have been less popular. Blogging is another powerful way in which media affects political advertising. The extent of many blogs portrays political messages. Most politicians use bloggers to generate messages that politically attack their opponents. Moreover, such blogs create good messages that directly or indirectly praise certain ca ndidates. It is evident that most political bloggers affect and influence how people make decisions during voting. In some instances, some bloggers create a negative picture of some politicians. Most voters incline to what the internet and media says about politicians. This is because there is no other way that voters can know their leaders and political candidates other than through the media (Hermanns, 2008). It is evident that media is a very powerful tool, with which various cultures and sub-cultures use to sell their ideas. In addition, many groups use the media to promote their culture and beliefs. Moreover, culture shapes political environments of any country, hence affecting political decisions. Various cultures also use media to promote and sell their agendas as they support and represent certain candidates from that culture or ethnic group. There are media houses that are exclusively for certain ethnic groups especially in less developed nations. The politicians who come f rom these ethnic groups use such media houses to compel people from their culture in supporting them. This causes fierce political battles between various media houses that support certain candidates of their own ethnic groups (Kahn Kellner). Castells, 2007 argues that even though media does not hold the power of any political culture, they influence the decisions made in bringing politicians to power. In many societies today, politics depend on political advertisement through media. This is because there is advancement in technology and more and more people are using the media in one way or another. The media is very powerful because it portrays both physical and intellectual pictures of political candidates. In this sense, media might popularize a candidate even though such a candidate was not popular among the voters. In addition, through political advertising, the voters may learn some behaviors as well as political agendas of candidates. This may lead to the voters trusting a certain candidate or developing distrust in another candidate. Even though media is a very powerful tool in political advertising, there are some limitations of media in delivering effective and wholesome political campaign. In this sense, political campaigns should target all ages of people as well as both literate and illiterate people. In addition, political advertising should reach both the poor and the rich. Some people are illiterate or too old to rely on the internet or social media for selecting their suitable candidates. Moreover, some people have limited resources to access social, print, and electronic media. This limits the wholesome effectiveness of media as a tool for political advertising (Riaz, 2010). Conclusion Media is a very powerful tool in political advertising. As technology advances in terms of social media and internet, most politicians are increasingly using media in political advertising. Media is useful in shaping democracies and political communications. In addition, most politicians are increasingly using media for political contest and campaigns. The social media and the internet are the most powerful forms of media for political advertising. In addition to these, electronic media in form of televisions and print media are increasingly popular for political advertising. Media has also some limitations in political advertising. It is not wholesome effective in relation to illiterate people, people who cannot access the media easily and old people. Reference List Behnke, P. (2010). Social Media and Politics: Online Social networking and Political Communication in Asia. Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung. Biagi, S. (2011). Media Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media. Hampshire: Cengage Learning. Castells, M. (2007). Communication, Power and Counter-power in the Network Society. International Journal of Communication, 1(1), 238-266. Hermanns, H. (2008). Mobile Democracy: Mobile Phones as Democratic Tools. Politics, 28(2), 74–8 2. Kahn, R., Kellner, D. (2004). New media and internet activism: from the battle of Seattle to blogging. New media and society, 6(1), 87-95. Riaz, S. (2010). Effects of New Media Technologies on Political Communication. Journal of Political Studies, 1(2), 161-173. Schultz, D. (2004). Lights, Camera, Campaign: Media, Politics, and Political Advertising. New York: Peter Lang. Swanson, D. L. Mancini, P. (1996). Politics, Media, and Modern Democracy: An International Study of Innovations in Electoral Campaigning and Their Consequences. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Tambini, D. (1999). New media and democracy: The civic networking movement. New media society, 1(3), 305–329. Thorburn, D. (2004). Democracy and New Media: Media in transition. Cambridge: MIT Press. Wolfsfeld, G. (2011). Making Sense of Media and Politics: Five Principles in Political Communication, New York: Taylor Francis.

Free Essays on The Heiress

The Heiress "The Heiress" written by Ruth and Augustus Goetz displays many examples of Aristotle’s six elements. Poetics outlines the six elements which are: plot, characters, thought, diction, music (or sound), and spectacle, all of which were present in this play. "The Heiress" is a play about a young woman living in New York with her father. One day she gets a â€Å"gentlemen caller† who, after two weeks time, ends up asking her to marry him. The young woman, named Catherine Sloper, is set to inherit an unordinary amount of money after her father passes away. The father, Dr. Austin Slope, is immediately suspicious of the gentleman caller, Morris Townsend. Dr. Sloper thinks, because of the short period and Morris Townsend’s lack of money that Townsend may not want to marry Catherine for love. As it turns out, Dr. Sloper is right, Catherine gets her heart broken and the dad dies. The theme of the play seemed to be one of coming of age. Catherine Sloper was extremely naà ¯ve and not a â€Å"people person† in the least during the beginning of the play. By the end she is cold and in charge, not afraid to be thought down upon. The acting and lines were very good, especially for a small theater, with the exception of Tim Murphy, (Dr. Sloper) who dropped quite a few lines over the course of the play. The sound effects were subtle and not overdone. The Heiress had amazing costumes and the props worked well. Overall, I thought Judy Madden, the director, did a great job with the cast and play. The play was done well for such a small theater on a tight budget. "The Heiress" was enjoyable and I would recommend it to any that ask.... Free Essays on The Heiress Free Essays on The Heiress The Heiress "The Heiress" written by Ruth and Augustus Goetz displays many examples of Aristotle’s six elements. Poetics outlines the six elements which are: plot, characters, thought, diction, music (or sound), and spectacle, all of which were present in this play. "The Heiress" is a play about a young woman living in New York with her father. One day she gets a â€Å"gentlemen caller† who, after two weeks time, ends up asking her to marry him. The young woman, named Catherine Sloper, is set to inherit an unordinary amount of money after her father passes away. The father, Dr. Austin Slope, is immediately suspicious of the gentleman caller, Morris Townsend. Dr. Sloper thinks, because of the short period and Morris Townsend’s lack of money that Townsend may not want to marry Catherine for love. As it turns out, Dr. Sloper is right, Catherine gets her heart broken and the dad dies. The theme of the play seemed to be one of coming of age. Catherine Sloper was extremely naà ¯ve and not a â€Å"people person† in the least during the beginning of the play. By the end she is cold and in charge, not afraid to be thought down upon. The acting and lines were very good, especially for a small theater, with the exception of Tim Murphy, (Dr. Sloper) who dropped quite a few lines over the course of the play. The sound effects were subtle and not overdone. The Heiress had amazing costumes and the props worked well. Overall, I thought Judy Madden, the director, did a great job with the cast and play. The play was done well for such a small theater on a tight budget. "The Heiress" was enjoyable and I would recommend it to any that ask....

Instructions on How to Make a Gentle Soap

Instructions on How to Make a Gentle Soap These are the instructions for making your own gentle hand or face soap. Its work, but worth the effort! This takes about 1 day to complete. Materials 4 kg (9 lb) suet (tallow)350 g (12 oz) lye750 ml (3 C) water500 ml (2 C) lemon juice7.5 ml (.25 oz) fragranceGlovesWooden spoonVentilated work areaMolds/glass baking dishes Instructions on How to Make Soap If you are using a pure fat, such as coconut oil or olive oil, you can skip stepping 5. Coconut oil yields a soft, quick-lathering soap. Olive oil and other vegetable cooking oils yield a soft soap that never completely hardens.Render the tallow by cutting it into chunks, placing it into the large pot, covering it, and heating on medium heat until it is melted. Stir occasionally.Cool the fat to below the boiling point of water. Add a volume of water equal to that of the fat. Bring the mixture to a boil. Cover and remove from heat. Let sit overnight.Remove the fat from the pot. Discard non-fat gunk (scrape it off of the bottom of the fat) and any liquid.Measure 2.75 kg rendered fat. Cut the fat into tennis-ball size chunks and place the pieces into a large bowl.Set up all of your materials. Ventilate the area (or work outside), put on safety gear, and open all containers.Make soap :-) Pour the water into a large glass or ceramic bowl (not metal). Carefully pour the lye into the bowl a nd mix the water and lye with the wooden spoon. The reaction between water and lye gives off heat (is exothermic) and vapors that you should avoid breathing. The spoon will be somewhat degraded by the lye.Once the lye is dissolved by the water, start adding the chunks of fat, a bit at a time. Keep stirring until the fat is melted. If necessary, add heat (put on a low burner with ventilation).Stir in the lemon juice and fragrance oil (optional). Once the soap is well mixed, pour it into molds. If you use glass baking dishes for molds, you can cut the soap into bars after it has become firmer (not hard).The soap will harden in approximately an hour.You may wrap the finished soap in clean cotton rags. It can be stored for 3-6 months in a cool, well-ventilated location.Wear gloves when washing your equipment, as there may be some unreacted lye remaining. Wash in very hot water to help melt away the residue. Useful Tips Adult supervision required! Wear gloves and protective eyewear and cover exposed skin to avoid accidental exposure to the lye. Keep out of reach of children!If you get lye on your skin, immediately wash it with lots of cold water. Read the cautions on the container before opening the lye.Dont measure the lye. Instead, adjust the soap recipe to accomodate the container size of the lye.Cooking oils are sensitive to air and light, and soap made from cooking oils will spoil in a few weeks unless it is refrigerated.Volatile fragrance oils or even dried herbs or spices may be added to the soap to scent it. The fragrance is optional.

Self-Management and Self-Planning Skills (Physical Education Course) Research Paper

Self-Management and Self-Planning Skills (Physical Education Course) - Research Paper Example In easiest way we can attain Healthy life style by combing of management and planning skills and to set goals not only long term but also shot term that can bring affirmative behavioral changes in daily routine if it is well planned, executed and based on easy strategies. Stages of Lifestyle Change There are five stages that are involved in the change of lifestyles and quitting habits (Prochaska, 1983). Precontemption: It is actually the denial phase where a person is not ready to leave his/her habit for anything as withdrawal from junk food for obese patients Contemplation: it is the phase when an individual start thinking about the change that could be better for life. Preparation: when individual start accepting and preparing for the change of dietary habits. Action: when individual takes actual step for change, as opting for other sources of food and start avoiding less beneficial Maintenance: it is the regular practice of that routine, as to maintain healthy lifestyle in this ex ample by adapting healthy food habits.

Critos Reason to Escape Prison Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critos Reason to Escape Prison - Assignment Example Crito believes that no one would believe that he actually gave out money for Socrates to escape, but Socrates declined and according to him, there is no any other disgrace than being considered as a person who values money compared to a friend. Crito’s reason for convincing Socrates to escape prison in order to avoid the death penalty is driven by the fact that he cannot believe that Socrates is justified in betraying his own life when he can be saved. Crito asserts that Socrates betraying own life is akin to betraying his own children (Plato, n.d.). This is because he is choosing to leave them when he can bring them up and play a role in educating them. He challenges Socrates by saying that nobody should bring forth children when they are not willing to persevere until the end to educate and nurture them into responsible people. Â  Socrates listens keenly to Crito before giving him reasons that counter his arguments. First and foremost, he tells Crito that he fears that Crito and his other friends may get into trouble with the informers for helping him escape. Additionally, helping him to escape will make them lose their entire or a huge part of their property; or they may even face worse evil. Â  In as much as Crito tries to convince him that they are willing to go to the extreme to ensure that he escapes, Socrates is exceptionally adamant. He gives Crito several premises and asks him whether he is right by saying that opinions of some people are to be valued and opinions others is not to be valued. In saying this, he was telling Crito not to value the opinion of people who will consider him as a person who values wealth as opposed to friendship (Plato, n.d.). According to Socrates, the opinions of such people are the ones to be considered as opinions that do not matter.

Multi Product Economic Order Quantity with Joint Ordering and no Stock Case Study

Multi Product Economic Order Quantity with Joint Ordering and no Stock Outs - Case Study Example Inventory Management Policy Inventory Cost Various elements of inventory cost include ordering cost, carrying cost, purchasing cost and stock-outs cost. Variation in ordering quantity results into variation in cost. The important elements of ordering cost includes preparation and Cost of tendering or bidding, negotiations with the suppliers, selection of suppliers and placement of purchase order. Ordering cost per unit comes down with increase in quantity. Ordering – Cost Curve Rationale for inclusion in Joint Ordering We have considered cement, paint and tiles for joint ordering purposes. Once the frame of the building is in place, the need for cement, tiles and paint arises, though use of cement is involved in all stages of construction. Plastering of walls with cement, flooring and painting work are simultaneously done at different parts of the building in an alternative manner in view of curing. Therefore, clubbing these materials for joint ordering is eminently justified since mostly suppliers of building materials deal with all these materials under one roof. Order Quantity and Joint Ordering Cost Since ordering cost is a component of material cost, order quantities for various materials considered for joint ordering need to be matched and fixed. It is mostly a question of alignment in the operations, taking into account the constraints such as availability of storage space or other factors. Stock Outs Situation Shortages or stock-out situations are avoided under efficient inventory management system. A system where purchases are based on pre-determined re-order level at which replenishment of stock takes place, considering the lead times and contingencies based on experience and market conditions, this issue of shortages or stock out situations arise when the stock level breaches the minimum level which is set below the re-order level. The cost of emergency purchasing and transportation will be high in these cases. Also, these situations involve a dditional cost since the customers’ demand in relation to delivery may not be fulfilled and result into penalties in the construction industry. Inventory Control Inventory comprises stocks of various materials required in the operation of the business, in this case construction. The main objective of inventory control is to achieve maximum efficiency in the operations with the minimum investment in inventory. Various organizations in various types of industries adopt different inventory models depending upon the level of uncertainty with reference to lead time and demand. The understanding of ordering cost and carrying cost and its relationship for striking a balance in order quantity will be useful in deciding the minimum, maximum and reorder levels for various items of stocks for joint ordering in a multiproduct environment to keep the inventory cost at minimum level. The inventory carrying cost will be very high if the order quantity is at higher level. On the other hand, if the size of the order is small, the ordering cost will be very high. The relationship between carrying cost and ordering cost is used in working out economic order quantity. Economic Order Quantity = SQRT((2*A*S)/C) Where A = Annual usage in units S = Ordering cost per order C = Annual

Renaissance Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Renaissance Art - Essay Example He had a lot of interest in science and produced pieces of unprecedented work during his time. He sold a lyre that he had fashioned to Lorenzo de Medici that was in the shape of the skull of a horse. It was supposed to be sent to Ludovico Sforza of Milan (Worldly Goods 564). Instead of giving the piece of artwork to Lorenzo de Medici to deliver it, he decided to do it by himself. He was then persuaded to remain in Milan by his host and this is where he painted the famous mural The last Supper on the wall of the monastery. (Painting of the last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci) His work of Raphael was preferred by Pope Leo X and earned him the position of court painter in France. His greatest piece of work was the painting of the Mona Lisa, which remains outstanding up to date. Michaelangelo Buonarroti at the age of 23 carved the pieta which brought him to fame instantly. This was first followed by his sculptor of King David that was equally a success. This made him become the symbol of al l the prospering artists in Florence. His ceiling paintings also remain to be one of the greatest undertakings of all time. Raphael was the leading painter of the renaissance period and is credited with painting The school of Athens that depicted an imaginary meeting of all the famous philosophers. This piece of work earned him the chance to paint for papal commissions which he did for the rest of his life (Guido 360). The last of the greatest artists of the renaissance period is Titian who distinguished himself from the other artists through the use of new techniques that imbued the bright colors with greater depth and subtlety. Conclusion The artists of the high renaissance period picked their commissions and didn’t have to wander from... The major characteristic of the artists in this period is that they searched for human emotion and realism in art through the use of the human method.The artists of the early renaissance period aimed at portraying human forms that appeared as if they had life in order to keep up with the spirit of humanism. They had realistic expressions and clothing that were proportional to the human beings. New techniques were developed by these artists to give the paintings a more three dimensional appearance. In order for them to achieve this, they had to study human and animal anatomy to come up with a more realistic presentation. The artists of the high renaissance period picked their commissions and didn’t have to wander from one city to the other in search of commissions like their predecessors. Their work was more refined and was highly demanded thus earning them many contracts. They changed the order of things as they shifted away from the traditional art and came up with their own philosophy on how things should be done. Their paintings still remain significant up to date owing to their unique nature and stylistic devices employed. They gave art a whole different humanistic approach that completely changed the manner in which artists carried out their business.

Land Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 3

Land Law - Essay Example In addition, equitable interests bound persons other than bona fide purchases of the estate for value without any notice of equitable rights3. However, Law of Property Act 2002 outlines certain legal rights such as leases for more than seven years that require registration and that will bind the purchaser of the land. Covenants, easements and estate contracts need registration; otherwise, the purchaser will not be bound regardless of whether he had knowledge of such interests. However, the right of beneficiaries under trust is overreaching thus is subject to doctrine of notice4. Estates and tenures stem from common law that dominated the early English law system that eventually evolved to Royal courts in terms of common pleas and exchequer. However, writs of the courts led to injustice in certain cases and principles of equity emerged based on conscience. Equity would prevail over common law in cases of conflict. For instance, common law courts refused to recognize the right of beneficiaries under trust land since it is only the trustees who had legal rights to the land unlike courts of equity that fully recognized the right of beneficiaries to the property5. In this case, equitable rights were not enforceable against a bona fide purchaser of a legal estate for value without any notice of any other attached claim to the estate. On the other hand, common law acts in rem and is enforceable against anybody ‘good against the whole world’ on all legal estates and interests6. According to land law, a bona fide purchaser for value is an innocent party who purchases property without any notice of any other party’s claim to the land. The bona fide purchaser must acquire the land for value rather than being a beneficiary to the land. In this case, the purchaser can acquire title to the land despite the competing claim from other interested parties7. A purchaser

Luxury Branding and The Online Shopping Environment Essay

Luxury Branding and The Online Shopping Environment - Essay Example The researcher states that luxury branding utilizes the experience and loyalty to sell fantasy to target customers. Companies offer exclusivity and distinction in order to create a lasting perception of the brands. The emotional relationship between the customer and the luxury product will determine the level of willingness to purchase a product or service. Miller and Mills argue that the functional benefits of the brands may not play a significant role in the management of the luxury brands. A framework of luxury brands in the 21st Century involves a number of products that consists primarily of beauty, beverages, jewelry, automobiles, property and fashion products. The brands depend mainly on the opinion of the public and its relevance to the luxury consumers. Consumers are engaging in symbolic consumption due to the similarity between the personality of the luxury brand and end users. There has been increased interest in the brand personality concept because of the perceived symbo lic benefits in luxury brands. The consumption of luxury brands occurs through a transition similar to Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs. Acquisition of luxury automobiles entails a transition from the basic car, through utility, quality, and premium to the luxury. A consumer with a luxurious personality would prefer a Rolls Royce as opposed to a basic Dodge model. An emphasis on taking advantage of the customer is vital to creating strong symbolic brand identities. Luxury brands defy the conventional marketing models. The marketing process is a paradox for many companies due to a great emphasis on high prices, quality, and publicity. Creation of brands that are highly visible in the marketplace is a top priority for firms producing luxury products. A model for brand concept entails high brand awareness with a high perception of quality.

Land Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 3

Land Law - Essay Example In addition, equitable interests bound persons other than bona fide purchases of the estate for value without any notice of equitable rights3. However, Law of Property Act 2002 outlines certain legal rights such as leases for more than seven years that require registration and that will bind the purchaser of the land. Covenants, easements and estate contracts need registration; otherwise, the purchaser will not be bound regardless of whether he had knowledge of such interests. However, the right of beneficiaries under trust is overreaching thus is subject to doctrine of notice4. Estates and tenures stem from common law that dominated the early English law system that eventually evolved to Royal courts in terms of common pleas and exchequer. However, writs of the courts led to injustice in certain cases and principles of equity emerged based on conscience. Equity would prevail over common law in cases of conflict. For instance, common law courts refused to recognize the right of beneficiaries under trust land since it is only the trustees who had legal rights to the land unlike courts of equity that fully recognized the right of beneficiaries to the property5. In this case, equitable rights were not enforceable against a bona fide purchaser of a legal estate for value without any notice of any other attached claim to the estate. On the other hand, common law acts in rem and is enforceable against anybody ‘good against the whole world’ on all legal estates and interests6. According to land law, a bona fide purchaser for value is an innocent party who purchases property without any notice of any other party’s claim to the land. The bona fide purchaser must acquire the land for value rather than being a beneficiary to the land. In this case, the purchaser can acquire title to the land despite the competing claim from other interested parties7. A purchaser

Curriculum Development Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Curriculum Development - Coursework Example In short, the state of flux that our world experiences is not confined to any one particular sector. As such, it is not with any sense of shock or concern that it is admitted that the very same forces which provide such a radical level of change within the other sectors that have thus far been discussed work together to effect a high level of change on the way in which education is administered and curriculum is generated within the current model. Accordingly, this brief analysis will consider the means by which education and curriculum Naturally when one raises the issue of the key ways in which education and the associated curriculum that goes along with it, the issue of changes in funding and the impact that the global financial crisis and other potential reductions in the future may potentially have become issues of primary importance. As has been seen, the global effect of the economic crisis has seen nearly every state within the world system seek to cut costs and find ways in which to balance budgets that are oftentimes already in the red ink. As such, education is oftentimes the â€Å"low lying fruit† which is robbed, delayed, or outright ignored as a means of addressing other key concerns that legislatures have at any given point in time (Virtue et al 2009). As such, this reactionary response to education and the funding that provides the mainstay of its efforts is both shortsighted and counterproductive in the long term. The ebb and flow of budgets and the cash flow of a given economic system is a perennial construct of the current world system; however, reacting in such a way and seeking to cut funding to education in order to balance budgets or seek to meet a certain benchmark is as short sighted as it is willfully ignorant. Although it has been stated ad infinitum, expense and investment in education is indeed an investment in the future. As such, cutting short on such an investment will certainly translate to a reduced yield on such an inve stment in the future. Running alongside the cost equation is the fact that extraordinarily rapidly changing technology has raised the cost of education far beyond what it was only a few brief years ago (Marshall 2011). This has occurred for a number of reasons. Firstly, the technology that educators require in order to present the material to their classrooms is seemingly continually antiquated and requires constant upfit to keep it within the current generation. Secondly, extra expense is also required in order to teach emergent technologies and courses to students in the form of extra electives. Likewise, all of these factors compound the force an ever increasing number of textbooks, course material, and educator’s resources to be updated, reprinted, and re-approached at an ever faster pace. The costs notwithstanding, such a necessity puts a severe strain on both the educator and the student as the pace and scope of the education seemingly becomes more and more frenetic eac h and every year (Fahey 2012). As a way to minimize this eventuality, this brief analysis will consider some of the ways that educators can attempt to approach these issues without chasing after the newest technology to get the point across or seeking to rapidly and/or incessantly alter the curriculum in order to engage the students with the most cutting edge ideas and trends in

Child Labour in the Industrial Revolution | Essay

Child Labour in the Industrial Revolution | Essay Nardinelli (1980; pp.739-55) argues, contrary to popular opinion, that the employment of children in the early Industrial Revolution was not ceased by the Factory Acts of 1833[1] and 1844[2], but rather that the Factory Acts simply speeded up a process that was already underway, in terms of technological changes and increases in family incomes, which meant that child labour was no longer necessary (Nardinelli, 1980; p.739). Using data from school enrolment rates, Nardinelli (1980; p. 751) shows that, following the introduction of the Factory Acts, no difference between school enrolment rates existed between the textile districts and the rest of the country. Nardinelli (1980; p.755) concludes that the textile industry, which used child labour, was only one of the industries that formed the Industrial Revolution, and, indeed, was almost the only industry to use child labour, and that, as such, the issue of child labour and its role in the success of the Industrial Revolution is diminis hed. Verdon (2002; pp.299-323) also discusses child labour, in rural areas, and its relation to women’s employment, family income and the 1834 Poor Law Report. As Verdon (2002; p.299) argues, it is important to take a regional approach to studies of the Industrial Revolution, and its effect on the lives of children throughout the nineteenth century, as child labour levels, family incomes and social class relations varied widely from region to region during the time of the Industrial Revolution. Verdon (2002, p.322) concludes that region, gender and age were all key determinants of labourers’ experience of work in nineteenth century rural areas, with children contributing a substantial proportion of the household income in 1834, across every region. At this time, therefore, rural child labour was an important source of childhood income. How this was affected by the introduction of Factory Acts (which, of course, would not directly have affected rural employment, outside of ur ban factories) is not discussed. Horrell and Humphries (1995; pp. 485-516) look at child labour and the family economy during the Industrial Revolution, using data from household budgets of this period, and found that during the period of early industrialisation, the number of children working and the number of children working in factories increased, and the age at which children started work decreased, due to the fact that older children became economically independent from families at an early age, thus leaving younger siblings to work to increase the household income. Horrell and Humphries (1995; p. 510) conclude that, indeed, during the early Industrial Revolution, little children were exploited, in that there was an â€Å"enormous growth in the employment of children in factories† during this period. Horrell and Humphries (1995; p. 511) show, supplementing the work of Verdon (2002), that there was an â€Å"intensification of child employment in the factory districts† during the early Industrial R evolution and that this was in stark contrast to the under- and unemployment of children in the rural South East during the later Industrial Revolution. In contrast to Nardinelli (1980), Horrell and Humphries (1995; p. 511) conclude that the Factory Acts did have the effect of reducing children’s employment in factories, but that this doesn’t seem to have had any effect on the numbers of children within families who were expected to work, and that â€Å"legislation†¦.may have displaced more girls than boys†, who then, it is hypothesised, moved into domestic service, for example, thus remaining in employment. Horn (1974; pp.779-796) looks at child workers in the pillow lace and straw plait trades in Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire, stating that the cottage industries in the regions outside of the urban centres of the Industrial Revolution (i.e., the towns across Lancashire) provided employment for many female workers, who, otherwise, would have been employed in domestic service. Thus, again, a regional view of child labour during the Industrial Revolution proves important, as this work of Horn (1974) essentially goes against the conclusions of Horrell and Humphries (1995). Horn (1974; p.795) concludes that cottage industries, such as these two industries, gave much-needed supplement to the household incomes of working-class families in these counties, and that similar cottage industries in other rural areas must have had the same effect too. Horn (1974; p. 795) notes that â€Å"the general education of the children (who worked in the cottage industries) was neglected† and the next section will look in further detail at how the education of children changed during the period of the Industrial Revolution. Johnson (1970; pp.96-119) looks at educational policy and social control in early Victorian England, showing that educating the poor seemed to be one of the strongest of early Victorian obsessions, with concern for education figuring largely, for example, as we have seen, in the Factory Act of 1833, and with private institutions, such as the National Society, launching many educational projects during the period 1838 and 1843 (Johnson; p.97). Johnson (1979; p.119) concludes, essentially, however, that the concern for educating the poor as expressed by early Victorian governments was more about controlling the working class population than it was about providing opportunity for the working classes, although issues surrounding what he terms the ‘educational problem’ of this time were hotly debated[3]. Reay (1991; pp.89-129) looks at the context and meaning of popular literacy in nineteenth century rural England, and shows that functional analyses of literacy tell little about the actual educational state of people living and working during the Industrial Revolution (Reay, 1991; p.128) as recorded declines in illiteracy amongst rural child workers, for example, often reflect the acquisition of a new skill, such as writing, rather than a shift towards full literacy. Analyses of signatures and marks are also not particularly useful, argues Reay (1991; p.129) as these can tell us little about the actual literacy level of the signatory, especially, as he argues, for much of the nineteenth century population, reading equalled literacy, in its correct cultural context, such that â€Å"the ability to sign one’s name is, actually, one of the least interesting aspects of literacy† (Reay; 1991; p.129). Snell (1999; pp.122-168) looks at the role Sunday Schools played in the education of working class child labourers during the Industrial Revolution, and shows that Sunday Schools were widespread around both the urban centres of the Industrial Revolution and across the English regions, and that Sunday Schools, essentially, through a religious educational policy, taught many nineteenth century child labourers the value of education, and also about civic responsibility, although often, as Snell (1999; p. 168) notes, â€Å"clerical control was strict and the syllabus narrow†, such that, much as Johnson (1979) argued, at this time, education for working class child labourers was as much about social control as it was about providing opportunity to this section of the population. Thompson’s (1981) paper looks at the issue of social control in Victorian Britain, arguing that social order in Britain was â€Å"subject to strains imposed by the dual processes of urbanisation and industrialisation† (Thompson, 1981; p.189), arguing that social control led to social transformation in Victorian society, throughout the course of the Industrial Revolution, not through legal systems, police forces and the threat of prisons, but through social control (Thompson, 1981; p.207) exercised from within each social class almost as an internal ‘thermostat’ of order, with social organisms such as community being important in defining, adapting and shaping popular culture (Thompson, 1981; p.208). This social control also included controls over relaxation and pleasure, with football, social clubs and music halls arising as a way in which the working classes could find release from their daily grind (Thompson, 1981; p.208). Conclusion This paper has looked at the issues of child labour, home life (in terms of household incomes and household demographics), and education in nineteenth century Britain, showing that successive changes in legislature provided better working conditions for child labourers during the nineteenth century, and that these changes in legislature meant that children were, at least to some extent, better educated towards the end of the period of the Industrial Revolution than they had been at the beginning of this period of history. This education, which, although, as we have seen, seemed to have been designed with the explicit purpose of exerting social control, did push forward some changes to child labour, in terms of shifting work from full-time to half-time, and, as we have seen, shifting the demographics of work, with younger children entering work in order to provide supplemental household income, as the older children of the household, during this period, had a tendency to become indepe ndent more quickly, leaving the household to enter in to domestic service, for example, which left a hole in the household’s purses, which needed to be filled. Education, during the nineteenth century was formulated through the Education Act of 1870, and was provided both by government institutions, as we have seen, and also private and religious organisations, through the Sunday School network, for example. As suggested, there is, perhaps, no consistent way in which to measure the effect of schooling on the literacy levels at the time, except to say that perhaps more children were able to write. It is clear, from the reviews of the articles presented here, that the working class developed as a clear cultural phenomenon, with social control coming from within this class, as a response to community expectations of behaviour. Thus, in sum, child labour was prevalent throughout the nineteenth century, across Industrial Britain (i.e., both in the urban centres and in rural areas) but this labour was, towards the end of the century, better regulated, in conjunction with increasing educational opportunities and standards, which led to the rise of a clear, self-controlling, working class. Bibliography Gordon Baker, The Romantic and Radical Nature of the 1870 Education Act, History of Education, 30,3 (2001), pp.211-232 Pamela Horn, Child Workers in the pillow lace and straw plait trades of Victorian Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire, Historical Journal, 17 (1974), pp.779-96 S.Horrell Jane Humphries, The Exploitation of little children: Child Labour and the family economy in the Industrial Revolution Explorations in Economic History, 32 (1995), pp.485-516 Richard Johnson, Education Policy and Social Control in Early Victorian England, Past and Present, 49 (1970), pp.96-119 Clark Nardinelli, Child Labour and the Factory Acts, Journal of Economic History, 40 (1980), PP.739-55 Barry Reary, The Context and Meaning of popular Literacy: Some Evidence from Nineteenth-Century Rural Ireland, Past Present, 131(1991), pp.89-129 K.D.M. Snell, The Sunday-School Movement in England and Wales: Child Labour, Denominational Control and Working-Class Culture, Past Present, 164 (1999), pp.122-16 F.M.L Thompson, Social Control in Victorian Britain, Economic History Review, 34,2 (1981) pp.189-208 Nicola Verdon, The rural labour market in the early nineteenth century: womens and childrens employment,family income, and the 1834 Poor Law Report, Economic History Review, LV,2 (2002),PP.299-323 Footnotes [1] which limited the employment of children to children over nine years of age (see Nardinelli, 1980). [2] which established the half-time system, whereby children worked half-day and went to school half-day (see Nardinelli, 1980) [3] Baker (2001; pp.211-232), for example, takes Johnson’s (1970) work further, and looks in detail at the 1870 Education Act and the consequences of this Act, in terms of what he terms ‘the distribution of life chances’ (Baker; p.211). Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Drug Addiction Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Drug Addiction Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Implications for Drug Addiction Jayan Samarakoon Abstract This paper looks at the current knowledge and debate surrounding memory reconsolidation. After a brief overview of consolidation and reconsolidation including the associated theories of each process the paper delved into the literature surrounding reconsolidation and critically evaluated research articles which either reinforced or shed doubt onto the physiological mechanisms of reconsolidation. The paper then discussed possible applications of this knowledge in the treatment of drug addiction, in particular the efficacy of blocking NDMA receptors to disrupt reconsolidation. Guidelines for future research concerning human trials were outlined. Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Implications for Drug Addiction Memories affect human behaviour (Nader Einarsson, 2010). An understanding of how memories are formed would give insight into the mechanisms that underlie behaviour. This paper will look at the physiological processes that affect memories such as consolidation and reconsolidation in particular the current knowledge and debate surrounding these memory processes. The paper will then delve into how this knowledge could affect psychology, in particular the realm of drug addiction. This will be done by critically evaluating the current literature and outlining areas for future research. Memories are believed to be located in the synapses between neurons of the brain (Nader Einarsson, 2010). New memories change the strength of the synapse which results in an adjustment of the specific memory (Clopath, 2012). Memory is categorised into two forms, short-term and long-term memory. The difference between the two is a process called consolidation which affects information stored in long-term memory via strengthening the neuron pathways affected by the memory called the memory trace (Nader Einarsson, 2010). Consolidation is the process of stabilizing a memory trace after the initial behavioural experience (Dubnau Chiang, 2013). Many different studies have found that several types of interference such as inhibiting protein synthesis, disrupting the function of specific proteins, and brain lesions or trauma can disrupt the process of consolidation (Alberini, 2011). These studies have formed the basis of understanding the different consolidation models. Consolidation consi sts of two distinct processes, synaptic consolidation and system consolidation (Clopath, 2012). Synaptic consolidation involves repeated stimulation of a neuron called long-term potentiation, which results in stable changes at the synapse over time while systems consolidation is a process where memories that are dependant of the hippocampus become independent and move to a separate brain region. Synapses can vary in strength, which is referred to as plasticity (Clopath, 2012). A change in synaptic plasticity can be a short-term change which lasts a few minutes to a long-term change which can last up to a life-time. A long-term change in plasticity is the basic definition of synaptic consolidation. This process allows memory to be consolidation within a single synapse, which cannot be altered by any new memories (Clopath, 2012). Synaptic consolidation usually occurs within the first few minutes to hours after the memory encoding has happened (Dudai, 2004). The physiological conditions that cause synaptic consolidation involve many different processes which result in a physical change of the synapse (Dubnau Chiang, 2013). They include modification and reorganisation of the synapse protein including the membrane receptors. Intracellular signalling proteins such as cAMP and MAPK are recruited to activate cellular remodelling and growth during synaptic consolidation (Dudai, 2004). The standard model of system consolidation posits that memory is dependent on the location of the encoding in the mediotemporal lobe (Dubnau Chiang, 2013). Initial memories are formed in the hippocampus via synaptic consolidation and then over a period of weeks or more the memory trace reorganises so that the retention is maintained by the neocortex and is not dependent on the hippocampus anymore (Dudai, 2004). There are some criticisms with this model of systems consolidation. For starters only declarative memory is processed by the hippocampus and as such this model cannot apply to non-declarative memory. An alternative view is called multiple trace theory. Multiple trace theory proposes that the hippocampus region is always involved in the retention and retrieval of episodic memories and that semantic memory follows the standard model of system consolidation (Dubnau Chiang, 2013). These models of consolidation assume that the process of consolidation occurs just once. This assumption is currently undergoing some criticism and debate on whether it is valid or not. Research has shown that the retrieval of a memory trace can induce a phase where the memory is malleable to change (Tronson Taylor, 2007). One paper proposed that memory was a dynamic process with two different states, an active state where memories both new and reactivated are labile to change and an inactive state where the memories stabilise over time (Nader Einarsson, 2010). Memory reconsolidation is induced by the reactivation of a specific memory (Reichelt Lee, 2013). This reactivation process causes the memory trace to become destabilised into a ‘labile’ state, a state where the memory pathway can be changed. The process to return the destabilised memory into a stable form is called reconsolidation and is dependent on protein synthesis (Reichelt Lee, 2013). Destabilisation occu rs when L-type voltage-gated calcium channels and cannabinoid CB1 receptors are activated, along with synaptic protein degradation in the dorsal hippocampus (Reichelt Lee, 2013). A study examined if it was possible to reactivate a consolidated memory into a labile state and introduce new information (Forcato, Rodrà ­guez, Pedreira, Maldonado, 2010). Participants were asked to learn an association between five cue-syllables and their respective response-syllables. 24 hours later the memory was reactivated and the subjects were given additional information, in this case three extra syllable pairs. The participants were tested on their knowledge the third day. The results showed that the new information was successfully incorporated into the former memory since both sets of syllables were successfully retained in memory when the instruction stated to add the new information to the old memory, unlike the condition where the instruction was omitted. This condition showed evidence that the two sets of information were encoded independently from each other due to interference in retrieval. The study used a verbal reminder (briefly mentioned the previous pairs) to try and trigger reconsolidation. They did not asses if retrieval of the memory actually occurred. One method of bypassing the requirement of assessing if memory retrieval occurred is to design an experiment where the process of memory reconsolidation is interrupted, which should impair memory retrieval at a later date. A study conducted in 2010 successfully demonstrated that if the reactivation of a memory is followed by an emotionally aversive stimulus results in impairment when recalled at a later date (Strange, Kroes, Fan, Dolan, 2010). This study gives evidence that memories can be impaired following their retrieval. Reconsolidation has been found to occur not just in humans but in other animals as well (Robinson Franklin, 2010). A Considerable amount of research exists which indicates that when an animal is reminded of a previously learned experience the memory of that experience undergoes reconsolidation. This is supported by findings which show that treatment with a protein synthesis inhibitor immediately after re-exposing the experience can produce amnesia of the memory itself, due to the fact that recalling a memory triggers reconsolidation which requires the production of new proteins (Cai, Pearce, Chen, Glanzman, 2012). One study looked at how the amnestic drugs propranolol and midazolam would affect reconsolidation in rats (Robinson Franklin, 2010). They did this by exposing the rats to a box which contained both morphine and a saline solution in separate areas. The rats were exposed to this apparatus either four or eight times depending on the experimental condition. Afterwards the ra ts received either no dosage, or an injection of an amnestic drug. The rats were retested two and seven days after the dosage in the four pairings condition and with the eight pairings condition they were tested eight times in 48 hour blocks. The result showed that the amnestic drugs disrupted reconsolidation for weak memories (four pairings condition) and had little effect for strong memories (eight pairings condition). A study conducted by Cammarota, et al. (2009), examined if reconsolidation would occur in an inhibitory avoidance task using rats. The rats were trained in an inhibitory avoidance task and 24 hours later were exposed to the task again. After the exposure the rats were injected with a protein synthesis inhibitor and tested on the avoidance task for the third time. The results revealed that the protein synthesis inhibitor had no effect on memory retention. If reconsolidation had occurred there would have been a change in memory retention. This study used a short time period to measure reconsolidation. In the study conducted by Robinson Franklin (2010), there was evidence that reconsolidation had occurred yet in the study by Cammarota, et al. (2009), there was no evidence of memory reconsolidation occurring. There are two major differences between the two studies which may shed light into the discrepancy regarding the results. The study which showed reconsolidation used many repeated exposures to the memory stimulus and measured the possible effects of reconsolidation over a period of two weeks (Robinson Franklin, 2010), unlike the other study which only had two training sessions (as opposed to four or eight) and tested for any reconsolidation effects within 24 hours of the last training session (Cammarota, Bevilaqua, Medina, Izquierdo, 2009). These findings show evidence that memory reconsolidation may only occur in specific instances, with the two studies giving evidence that training strength and time may be two factors which affect reconsolidation. Research into finding the prerequisites of reconsolidation would be beneficial. One study looked at the limitations or boundaries of memory reconsolidation (Wang, De Oliveira Alvares, Nader, 2009). In the study Wang, et al. (2009) looked at the effects of strong training on fear-associated memory and reconsolidation. The data suggested that when 10 pairings were used instead of one the memory did not undergo reconsolidation until after thirty days have passed. By looking at the molecular mechanisms the researchers found that certain NDMA receptor subunits have to be stimulated in the BLA during reactivation of the memory to begin reconsolidation. They found that strong training could inhibit the activation of the NR2B receptor subunit which resulted in the fear stimulus not triggering reconsolidation. These results suggest that even though reconsolidation exists there are certain prerequisites that have to be met to start the process, such as the strength of the training and the time that has elapsed since encoding. These limitations may be the reason why some studies have not found a reconsolidation effect. These research articles show that reconsolidation is an actual process of memory. Reconsolidation can be the mechanism which enables our memories to be modified or updated since the memory that undergoes the process is activated often in situations which present additional complementary information (Lee, 2009). Since old, well-established memories can undergo reconsolidation there exists the possibility to exploit the destabilisation of the memory and either disrupt or even erase it completely (Milton Everitt, 2010). Therefore reconsolidation could be seen as an adaptive technique which can potentially affect or guide future behaviour. This has many potential applications. Many psychiatric disorders are due to underlying aberrant memories, such as drug addiction (Milton Everitt, 2010). Drug addiction is a chronic and relapsing disorder whereby the main risk of relapse comes from the presentation of environmental cues which have been previously associated with harmful drug use (Font Cunningham, 2012). These cues are memories which can possibly be targeted and changed by memory reconsolidation to influence future behaviour. One study looked at reconsolidation and alcohol dependence in mice (Font Cunningham, 2012). The mice were trained with either a strong or weak conditioning process. The animals were then given an injection of propranolol, a receptor antagonist and tested for memory consolidation a day later. The test found that memory retention was not affected by the antagonist. The study examined the effects of propranolol after the reactivation of the memory therefore the antagonist was introduced after reconsolidation had started. A study that looks at the effects of an antagonist that has been introduced before reconsolidation has started may yield different results. One study looked at drug-associated memories and their relationship with amygdala NMDA receptors (Milton, Lee, Butler, Gardner, Everitt, 2009). They hypothesised that NMDA receptors in particular glutamate receptors within the amygdala are crucial for the consolidation between environmental conditioned stimuli and the effects of addictive drugs, therefore the NMDA receptors must be crucial for the reconsolidation of drug-associated memories (Milton, et al., 2009). The study used a behavioural task that measures the conditioned reinforcing properties of a drug-paired stimulus by first exposing the stimulus, then injecting a NMDA receptor antagonist before a memory reactivation session. They found that the antagonist disrupted drug-associated memory and decreased the conditioned reinforcement effect. This effect lasted four weeks which was the length of the experiment. Although there was a link found when the receptor antagonist was injected before the reactivation session there was n o difference when the drug was introduced after the session which indicates that the receptor may only have a limited role in reconsolidation. These results suggest that controlling the glutamate levels at the NMDA receptor may be useful in preventing relapses although further research has to be done, particularly on the actual effect of NDMA receptors on reconsolidation and the length this effect lasts for. In summary the current knowledge of reconsolidation is quite sufficient to have an impact in psychological applications such as treating drug addiction. Knowledge about the specific physiological mechanisms of reconsolidation from animal studies is a good foundation to advance towards human experiments. Further research into the specific physiological mechanisms which underlie reconsolidation would help create effective treatment plans as would moving from animal studies to human trials. References Alberini, C. M. (2011). The role of reconsolidation and the dynamic process of long-term memory formation and storage. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 5, 12. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00012 Cai, D., Pearce, K., Chen, S., Glanzman, DavidL. (2012). Reconsolidation of long-term memory in Aplysia. Current Biology, 22(19), 1783-1788. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.07.038 Cammarota, M., Bevilaqua, L. R. M., Medina, J. H., Izquierdo, I. (2009). Retrieval does not induce reconsolidation of inhibitory avoidance memory. Learning Memory, 11(5), 572-578. doi:10.1101/lm.76804 Clopath, C. (2012). Synaptic consolidation: an approach to long-term learning. Cognitive Neurodynamics, 6(3), 251-257. doi:10.1007/s11571-011-9177-6 Dubnau, J., Chiang, A.-S. (2013). Systems memory consolidation in Drosophila. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23(1), 84-91. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2012.09.006 Dudai, Y. (2004). The neurobiology of consolidations, or, how stable is the engram? Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1), 51-86. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142050 Font, L., Cunningham, C. L. (2012). Post-retrieval propranolol treatment does not modulate reconsolidation or extinction of ethanol-induced conditioned place preference. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 101(2), 222-230. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2012.01.009 Forcato, C., Rodrà ­guez, M. L. C., Pedreira, M. E., Maldonado, H. (2010). Reconsolidation in humans opens up declarative memory to the entrance of new information. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 93(1), 77-84. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2009.08.006 Lee, J. L. C. (2009). Reconsolidation: maintaining memory relevance. Trends in Neurosciences, 32(8), 413-420. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2009.05.002 Milton, A. L., Everitt, B. J. (2010). The psychological and neurochemical mechanisms of drug memory reconsolidation: implications for the treatment of addiction. The European journal of neuroscience, 31(12), 2308. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07249.x Milton, A. L., Lee, J. L., Butler, V. J., Gardner, R., Everitt, B. J. (2009). Intra-amygdala and systemic antagonism of NMDA receptors prevents the reconsolidation of drug-associated memory and impairs subsequently both novel and previously acquired drug-seeking behaviors. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28(33), 8230-8237. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1723-08.2008 Nader, K., Einarsson, E. Ãâ€". (2010). Memory reconsolidation: an update. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1191(1), 27-41. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05443.x Reichelt, A. C., Lee, J. L. C. (2013). Memory reconsolidation in aversive and appetitive settings. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 7, 118. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00118. Robinson, M. J. F., Franklin, K. B. J. (2010). Reconsolidation of a morphine place preference: Impact of the strength and age of memory on disruption by propranolol and midazolam. Behavioural Brain Research, 213(2), 201-207. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.04.056 Strange, B. A., Kroes, M. C. W., Fan, J. E., Dolan, R. J. (2010). Emotion causes targeted forgetting of established memories. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 4, 175. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00175 Tronson, N. C., Taylor, J. R. (2007). Molecular mechanisms of memory reconsolidation. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 8(4), 262-275. doi:10.1038/nrn2090 Wang, S.-h., De Oliveira Alvares, L., Nader, K. (2009). Cellular and systems mechanisms of memory strength as a constraint on auditory fear reconsolidation. Nature Neuroscience, 12(7), 905-912. doi:10.1038/nn.2350